HUMS 131 Final Exam Study Guide

Course: History, Power and People (Dr. Seda Altuğ) Exam format: Identical to the midterm - NOT cumulative. Scope of this guide: Week 6 (Haiti - the part not on the midterm) + Weeks 7–10 (Napoleon in Egypt · Eastern Question/Greece · Industrial Revolutions · Labor Mobilization). Companion file: HUMS131_Final_Movie_Study_Guide.md - use it for film evidence.

How to use this guide

1. Read the lecture sections first (Weeks 6–10). They're written so you can read them straight through like a mini-lecture and actually understand the argument, not just memorize. Each week unfolds chronologically.
2. Drill the term bank - the most likely Part-2 terms, each hidden behind a dropdown so you can read the term, recall the answer, then check yourself.
3. Work through the predicted long-essay questions in the companion file HUMS131_Final_Essay_Questions.md - read each prompt, build the answer in your head, then open the dropdown to compare.
4. Read the master timeline at the end straight through - the whole post-midterm story laid out in order, start to finish.

1 Exam format

Based on the Fall 2025 midterm, the final has two parts worth 50 points each (100 total).

Part 1 - Long Essay (50 pts). Choose 1 of 2 questions, answered in no more than one A4 page, with concrete examples from the course notes, the primary sources (readings), and the movies, with precise chronology. (Predicted prompts + worked outlines are in HUMS131_Final_Essay_Questions.md.)

Part 2 - Short Essay / Terms (50 pts). Choose 5 of 8 terms, at least 3 sentences each, referring to course notes, primary sources, and movies where relevant - 10 pts per term. The term bank below covers the likely candidates.

The primary sources to be able to cite post-midterm readings

2 Lecture notes read these like a lecture

Big-picture thread of the whole course

The course's master question is: why did "the West" come to dominate the world, and how did that create the modern North/South divide? The post-midterm half answers with four mechanisms working together: (1) imperial expansion dressed up as a civilizing/scientific mission (Napoleon in Egypt), (2) nationalism dissolving multi-ethnic empires (the Eastern Question / Greece), (3) industrialization as the economic engine of European power (Weeks 9), and (4) the brutal social cost of that engine, which produced new politics of class (Week 10). Week 6 (Haiti) is the bridge from the midterm: it shows the revolutionary ideal of "universal man" colliding with race and slavery - the limit of the Enlightenment promise.

WEEK 6 The French Revolution A Caribbean Perspective Haiti - Saint-Domingue

The question of the week: What happens when "the Rights of Man" are exported to a slave society? In France the fault line was class (active vs. passive citizens, property as the basis of rights). In the colony, on top of class, you get race as the structuring principle - and the contradiction explodes, because slaves are themselves property. You cannot extend property rights to people who are legally property without destroying the whole economic order.

The setup (the long background). The island was first the Spanish colony Hispaniola; contact devastated the native Arawak (Taíno) people through mine labor, disease, and famine. France seized the western third in 1659, formalized by the Treaty of Ryswick (1697). Under France, Saint-Domingue became a plantation economy - indigo, cotton, sugar, and from 1734 coffee - and the most profitable colony in the world, worked by enslaved Africans (mostly via Guinea). The Code Noir (1685, Louis XIV) nominally regulated treatment but was ignored; brutality was partly a security policy to keep an ever-growing enslaved majority weakened. By 1789 there were roughly 500,000 enslaved people against ~40,000 whites.

The racial hierarchy. Above the enslaved were free people; whites split into three feuding groups - big whites (grands blancs, wealthy planters, often aristocrats turning birth-privilege into race-privilege), the royal bureaucracy (resented for enforcing the exclusif, the monopoly forcing the colony to trade only with France), and small whites (petits blancs - clerks, artisans, who resented everyone above them). Concubinage produced a growing population of mixed heritage, the mulattoes; some were freed, became artisans/servants, and amassed property - a property-owning class of color. Whites obsessively codified whiteness (up to 128 gradations - quadroon, octoroon, etc.), so race became the organizing principle, and even mulattoes distinguished themselves from the enslaved. But mulattoes and whites shared one bond: property.

Resistance before the revolution. Enslaved people built an autonomous culture - Haitian Creole, Vodou - and resisted: escapees formed maroon communities (3,000 maroons by 1751), with leaders like François Mackandal, who used poison against slaveowners.

Why France was complicit. This is a key exam point: the French bourgeoisie that led the Revolution in the name of the Rights of Man made its fortune from the colonies. The maritime bourgeoisie of Bordeaux, Nantes, La Rochelle, Marseille profited from the slave trade and sugar refining; French factory workers depended on colonial sugar. Yet the 18th-century Enlightenment also attacked slavery - Voltaire (the Surinam slave in Candide), the Abbé Raynal (a major influence on Toussaint), and the founding of the Société des Amis des Noirs (Society of the Friends of Blacks) in 1788 by Abbé Grégoire, Condorcet, and Brissot. (This is your Week 6 primary source - their 1790 "Address to the National Assembly" argued for abolishing the slave trade.)

The revolution detonates the colony (chronology - memorize this).

• The Revolution makes property the axis of shifting alliances. Small whites join the Revolution against the big whites and bureaucracy and against mulatto property owners → mulattoes ally with the royalist bureaucracy → big whites then also seek that alliance. Everyone realigns around property and race.
• In France, the Jacobins oppose slavery (Robespierre, April 1791: "May the colonies perish rather than our principles"); the Club Massiac is the pro-colonial lobby.
• The 1791 Constitution gives the vote to property owners; whether mulattoes count is fiercely contested. Vincent Ogé leads a mulatto revolt in October 1790 and is executed.
• August 1791: the great slave uprising begins - Dutty Boukman (a Vodou ceremony sparks it); plantations burn. Toussaint Bréda (later Louverture, b. ~1743, an educated former house-slave) joins at about age 45.
• France sends commissioners; Léger-Félicité Sonthonax, to win the war, declares abolition in Saint-Domingue on 29 August 1793.
• 4 February 1794: the National Convention abolishes slavery in all colonies. Toussaint, who had been fighting for the Spanish, switches to France and rises to Lieutenant-General (1796), building schools and regulating (no corporal punishment) labor.
• Under the Directory and then Napoleon, France and Toussaint grow suspicious of each other. Toussaint annexes Spanish Santo Domingo (1800) and issues a constitution (1801) = virtual independence. (His 1801 "Final Proclamation" is your other Week 6 primary source.)
• December 1801: Napoleon sends General Leclerc with ~20,000 troops to retake the island and (it's feared) restore slavery. 20 May 1802: Napoleon re-authorizes slavery in Martinique/Réunion, confirming the fear → mass insurrection.
• 7 June 1802: Toussaint is lured into a trap, arrested, shipped to France, and dies in prison (1803). His general Jean-Jacques Dessalines fights on; the French, ravaged by yellow fever and war, lose. Helped by renewed Anglo-French war (Britain backs Dessalines), the rebels win.
• 31 December 1803 / 1 January 1804: Haiti declares independence - the first successful slave revolution and first Black republic. Dessalines crowns himself emperor (1804).

The exam takeaway (the "limitation" move). Haiti is the proof that the "Universal Man" of 1789 was not universal: revolutionary France abolished slavery only under the pressure of an actual slave revolt and the needs of war, and Napoleon tried to reverse it. Use Haiti whenever a question asks about the limits of revolutionary equality or what happens when Enlightenment ideals meet race and empire. Film link: 12 Years a Slave (slavery's lived brutality) from the midterm period still works as evidence here, but Haiti is mainly a readings + notes topic.

WEEK 7 Northern Intrusions Napoleons Egyptian Campaign 1798-1801

The question of the week: How does modern European colonialism in the Middle East begin, and why is it born as a marriage of military occupation + scientific knowledge? Answer: Napoleon's invasion of Egypt is the foundational moment of modern Orientalism - Western scholarly "knowledge" of the East fused with power politics.

Define Orientalism up front (you'll need it for the essay and as a term). Orientalism = the body of (mostly Western) scholarship on Eastern languages, history, and cultures. It can be a genuine scientific endeavor - but after Napoleon, it becomes inseparable from domination. This is Edward Said's core argument (your primary source): Western knowledge of the "Orient" is a form of power - to catalog, represent, and define the East is to control it.

Why Egypt, why then. The campaign is part of France opening Mediterranean fronts. After Italian campaigns (1797–98, Napoleon takes Nice, Savoy, the Ionian islands, ends the Republic of Venice), the immediate military goal was to cut Britain's communication route to India - this is a war over controlling the Mediterranean. There were also commercial motives (colonize Egypt as a grain source) and Napoleon's romantic dream of the Orient (imitating Alexander). Crucially, he consulted Orientalist scholars to prepare - the first time Orientalist knowledge was put to direct colonial use.

The ideological cover. The original Jacobins had opposed colonialism and slavery, but a conservative camp won the argument that France needed colonies to "prosper," producing the idea of satellite republics (colonies remade as France-modeled republics, "liberated" but controlled from Paris). The legislator Joseph Eschassériaux framed colonizing Egypt as regenerating "the first home of civilization" - this is the moment colonization adopts the vocabulary of liberating oppressed peoples.

Egypt's situation. Because Ottoman resources were drained by wars (esp. against Russia), the Ottoman hold loosened - note the Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca (1774) after the Russo-Turkish War (1768–74) and the birth of the Eastern Question. Egypt had become a virtually autonomous state under a revived, unstable, unpopular Mamluk order - no cohesive central government, just competing Mamluk households taxing and trading.

The invasion (chronology).

• The fleet (l'armée d'Orient, ~40,000 men plus scientists) leaves Toulon on 19 May 1798 and lands at Alexandria, July 1798.
• Napoleon issues a proclamation in (broken) Arabic claiming the campaign is in God's name, that the French are friends of Islam, and playing on the Mamluks' foreignness (their Circassian/Georgian origins) to split rulers from local Arabs.
• Battle of the Pyramids - decisive French defeat of the Mamluks. Elite Arabs largely side with the French; the lower classes join the Mamluks' jihad after the Ottoman sultan's appeals (firmans).
• 1 August 1798: Nelson destroys the French fleet at the Battle of the Nile (Aboukir Bay) → the expeditionary force is stranded in Egypt.
• Napoleon briefly invades Syria/Palestine (villages massacred), then returns to France, leaving the army to rule "scientifically" for three years.

The scientific mission (the heart of the week). Cut off, the French tried to govern as a model Enlightenment colony: native councils, new courts, postal service, hospitals, a National Guard, land reform, printing presses, two newspapers. Above all came knowledge production:

• Napoleon founded the Institut d'Égypte in Cairo - ~160 scholars meeting twice weekly, studying everything from Nile slime to antiquities. This birthed Egyptology (→ Champollion and the Rosetta Stone).
• The monumental Description de l'Égypte (published 1809–1829) catalogued the country. Fourier's preface framed the mission as bringing the Orient "all the advantages of a perfected civilization" and restoring Egypt "from its present barbarism to its former classical greatness" - i.e., disguising knowledge gathered during occupation as "a contribution to modern learning."
• This drew on an older tradition (Anquetil-Duperron; Sylvestre de Sacy, whose students staffed the expedition) but now welded knowledge to conquest. European "experts" repeatedly claimed locals were incapable of exploiting Egypt's resources (antiquities, trade, agriculture) - the justification for European control.

Consequences. A joint British-Ottoman expedition (1801) ended the occupation and evacuated the French. Ironically, the venture strengthened Britain in the Mediterranean (Gibraltar, Malta, Ionian Islands). But its lasting legacy is discursive: the occupation "gave birth to the entire modern experience of the Orient" - the template of colonialism-as-civilizing-science.

Exam takeaways. Use Week 7 for any question on knowledge-as-power, the civilizing mission, or how Europe imagined the non-West. Pair Napoleon's proclamation/letters (claiming liberation) with Said (knowledge = power) and the Description de l'Égypte (cataloguing = possessing). Film link: Passion in the Desert (Currier, 1998) - the artist commissioned to sketch Egypt literalizes Said's argument; the French officer "going native" dramatizes Western anxiety about being absorbed by the colonized.

WEEK 8 The Eastern Question and National Liberation in Greece

The question of the week: How does nationalism - diffused by the Napoleonic Wars - dismantle a multi-ethnic empire? Using Greece as the case, watch the central process: the ethnicization / nationalization of religious difference. Identities that were once plural and religious (Orthodox Christian, Muslim) become exclusive national identities (Greek, Turk). What once divided people was faith; nationalism makes it ethnicity/nationality.

Define the Eastern Question (key term). From the late 18th century onward, the Eastern Question = the growing appetite of the Western powers to dismember and annex portions of the weakening Ottoman Empire. The Ottomans went from "mighty foe" to "a space to be colonized." This is the backdrop to every Balkan revolt.

The three ingredients of Balkan revolt (memorize as a list).

1. Weakening of the Ottoman Empire amid Great-Power rivalry (Russia, Austria, France, Britain).
2. Social unrest linked to Ottoman misgovernment.
3. The cultural construction of national communities by Westernized elites inspired by the Enlightenment.

Russia and the Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca (1774). Under Catherine the Great, Russia became the first power to seek permanent Mediterranean access. The Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca (1774) gave Russia a foothold in Crimea, control over parts of the Black Sea, free navigation through the Straits, and a claimed right to protect the Orthodox population inside the Ottoman Empire - a wedge for later intervention. (Same treaty appears in Week 7 - it's a hinge date.)

Why the Greeks specifically. A small, highly placed Greek (Orthodox, Greek-speaking) minority controlled much of Balkan commerce, dominated the Orthodox Church most Balkan Christians belonged to, monopolized educational/cultural institutions, and filled the highest administrative posts. How? Ottoman decline after the Russian wars forced the Empire into protracted diplomacy with the West, requiring people fluent in Western languages - enter the Phanariotes (Greeks of the Phanar/Fener district of Istanbul, where the Orthodox Patriarch sat), who became the Empire's secretaries, interpreters, and tax farmers. Meanwhile, 18th-century wars among Western powers disrupted their Mediterranean trade, and Greek merchants stepped into the gap. Constant Western contact + French revolutionary ideals → a turn toward revolutionary action for liberation.

The secret society. In 1814, three Phanariote merchants founded the Philiki Etaireia (Society of Friends) in Odessa, on a Masonic model. Membership exploded into the tens of thousands. Through trade and diaspora, Greek elites absorbed Enlightenment ideas - rule of law over religious order, faith in progress, and (most importantly) the universalist pretension that cultures can be ranked on a scale of progress.

The revolt and its violence (chronology).

• 25 March 1821: revolt begins in the Peloponnese, with Bishop Germanos raising the standard of the cross.
• Early successes: islands (Hydra, Spetses), plus Athens, Missolonghi, Thebes; Kolokotronis defeats Dramali Pasha at Dervenakia.
• Ottoman reprisals: the Massacre of Chios (1822); destruction of Kasos (~7,000 killed/enslaved by Mehmed Ali's fleet); the hanging of Patriarch Gregory V of Constantinople.
• Deadlock until 1825, when the Sultan calls in Muhammad Ali of Egypt, whose son Ibrahim attacks from the south while Ottoman forces press from the north; Athens falls in 1827.

Why Europe intervened - Philhellenism. Across Europe a Philhellenic movement fused liberals (who saw the rebels as heirs of Pericles) and conservatives (who saw fellow Christians). Lord Byron died at Missolonghi (1824). The decisive point: Philhellenic imagery made Greece "a European country" in the Western imagination - so the Great Powers acted.

• 20 October 1827, Battle of Navarino: the combined British-French-Russian fleet destroys the Ottoman-Egyptian fleet.
• London Protocol, 3 February 1830: Greece declared an independent monarchical state, with John Capodistrias as president.
• 1832–33: the Powers impose Prince Otto of Bavaria as King - Greece "nominally independent" but a Great-Power creation.

Manufacturing the nation (the deepest exam point). Independence didn't find a nation; the state built one:

• The University (1837) trained all teachers in "national values" - a community of language, faith, and history. Athens became the center for "unredeemed" Greeks across the Mediterranean, who came, trained, and went home preaching nationalism.
• Conscription instilled belonging to a nation larger than the village.
• Rewriting history: Constantine Paparrigopoulos, History of the Hellenic Nation (1860–77), invented an unbroken continuity from Ancient Greece through Byzantium to the present.
• 1844: the "Great Idea" (Megali Idea) - uniting all unredeemed Greeks in one state - became official policy until 1923, driving repeated wars against the Ottomans. Those wars, in turn, helped crystallize a Turkish national consciousness. (Nationalism breeds counter-nationalism.)

Exam takeaways. Week 8 is your go-to for nationalism, the unmaking of multi-ethnic empires, and the ethnicization of religion. Anchor it with Mazower (the Balkans' plural past) and the Greek Declaration of Independence (Jan 1822). Note the Great-Power paradox: Greece was freed by the imperial powers it claimed independence from, and "the nation" was largely constructed after the fact by universities, conscription, and rewritten history.

WEEK 9 The Industrial Revolutions I and II

The question of the week: What are the economic foundations of Europe's global power? Answer: industrialization - beginning in late-18th-century Britain, accelerating through the 19th century into a Second Industrial Revolution. This is the engine behind "Westernization as modernization," and your primary source is Kennedy, The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers (industrial productivity → global dominance).

The preconditions (what you need for an industrial takeoff - list this).

• Credit institutions / banks lending at interest (previously private) - wealth from trade → credit → investment → land consolidation and modern equipment.
• A transport/communications revolution - steamships, railroads.
• Rising agricultural productivity, which both feeds a growing population and frees up capital to reinvest. More marginal land (marshes, bogs) is reclaimed; farms consolidate - producing greater farms and a proletarianized, landless agricultural class (the Enclosure movement).
• Mechanized production transforming textiles and metallurgy, gathering workers (including women and children) into large factories.
• The abolition of the guilds, which undercut artisans.
• A demographic explosion: Europe's population rose from 187M (1800) to 266M (1866).

The railroad - why it's the catalyst. First train hauled coal in England in 1820; Britain had ~100 miles of rail in 1830, 6,600 by 1852. Railroads (a) attracted massive private investment, (b) spurred metallurgy, and (c) slashed transport costs.

The Second Industrial Revolution (mid-19th c. on): steel + electricity.

• Steel: Bessemer's process (1856) allowed cheap mass production. Steel's strength/durability beat iron → used in weapons (the Krupp dynasty) and transport; the first huge conglomerates were steel firms. Rail networks reached the countryside; steamships brought cheap American grain and meat to Europe → falling food prices → another population surge: 290M → 435M between 1870 and 1914.
• Electricity: enabled the telegraph, undersea cable, telephone, and (after Edison's incandescent lamp, 1879) lighting. Its real power was industrial - easily transported (unlike coal/water/gas), it let factories run non-stop, "turning night into day." It transformed urban transport: London Underground 1863, Paris Métro 1900, New York subway 1904.
• The automobile: after Carl Benz (1885), the car industry exploded, pulling along steel, rubber, aluminum, roads, gas stations - plus the assembly line / Taylorization.
• Finance: conglomerates drove investment banks and stock exchanges; the City of London channeled capital worldwide; German banks powered German heavy industry by holding large blocks of industrial shares.

Social impact (Part 2 of the lecture - equally important).

• Urbanization + spatial segregation: the poor/working class pushed to the periphery; the wealthy no longer live among them.
• The middle class swells (~15–25% of Western Europe): bankers, industrialists, lawyers, plus a new lower-middle class (clerks, accountants, bookkeepers, agents) and an army of state employees (tax collectors, postal workers, inspectors, schoolteachers).
• Education reforms drive this and serve the state: in Britain (1880) schooling became compulsory (free by 1891); in France the Ferry Laws (1879–81) made primary school free, compulsory, and secular (and "bulldozed" regional dialects in favor of French). Results: by ~1900 only ~6% of French men and <1% of Germans were illiterate. Schooling's four functions: feed industry with skilled workers; cultivate nationalism (against socialism/communism); instill imperial pride and racial superiority; and break the Church's hold on the state (→ 1905 French law on secular education).
• New "respectability": no longer tied to birth/privilege but to hard work and obedience; getting rich becomes respectable, bankruptcy a stigma. New middle-class notions of childhood and adolescence (separate rooms) - impossible in working-class homes where children worked.
• The working class lived in poverty: family income went mostly to food (above all bread), then clothing and lodging. Women worked as servants (up to 40%), laundresses, seamstresses, and increasingly in textile factories for under half a man's wage; prostitution rose and was tolerated by the state to serve middle-class men. Child labor: children did tasks suited to small size (clearing machines) for ~¼ their father's wage - Britain's 1833 law banned work for children under 9. Urban life brought atomization (loss of village support) and epidemics - one-third of all deaths in Britain (1848–72) were epidemic.
• Migration: over 5M Europeans went overseas (1816–50), especially in the "hungry forties."

The critics and the responses.

• Novelists: Dickens' "Coketown" in Hard Times (1854).
• Charity + policing: middle-class moralizing campaigns; Robert Peel's "bobbies" - reflecting a fear of popular insurgency.
• Thinkers: Thomas Malthus (1766–1834) - population outruns food, so restraint/education needed; John Stuart Mill, Principles of Political Economy (1848) - contra Adam Smith's invisible hand, the state must intervene to fix industrialization's harms.
• Poor relief: Britain's Speenhamland system (1795) topped up wages from property taxes - but let employers pay less; the Poor Law Amendment Act (1834) ended it and confined the jobless to workhouses run like prisons, breaking families apart (~200,000 inmates in 1841).

Exam takeaways. Week 9 answers "the economic foundations of European global power" (pair with Kennedy) - but always show the double face: dominance abroad rested on misery at home. Film link: Oliver Twist (Polanski, 2005) - the workhouse and the New Poor Law mentality (1834) are your concrete image of industrialization's human cost.

WEEK 10 Industrialization and Labor Mobilization

The question of the week: Industrialization created a distinct, exploited working class (Week 9). What did that class do about it? Answer: it developed independent means of self-protection and political struggle, proposing a society of equals not just in law but in wealth and opportunity. The emblematic ideologies: communism and anarchism. The emblematic event: the Paris Commune (1871).

Situating socialism. Communism is associated with Karl Marx (and Engels) and seen as the ideological foundation of socialism (social and economic equality for all). But communism is a later form of socialist doctrines born in the early 19th century in the wake of the French Revolution; across the century intellectuals built competing socialisms to give doctrinal coherence to working-class struggle. The one event where all these tendencies meet is the Paris Commune.

The Paris Commune (March–May 1871) - the lecture's centerpiece.

Two processes that produced it:

1. The late Second Empire of Napoleon III: socialist organizing revived - 1868 legalization of meetings (politics discussed in cafés, warehouses); a wave of strikes in 1870 (previously illegal).
2. The Franco-Prussian War (sparked by the Spanish succession / Hohenzollern candidacy): Prussia crushes France; on 4 September 1870 a Paris insurrection proclaims the Republic and vows to keep fighting the Prussians.

The break (chronology):

• February 1871: elections produce a very conservative National Assembly (conservative provinces outvote Paris).
• March 1871: the provisional government sends troops to Montmartre to seize the National Guard's cannons (which had defended Paris during the Prussian siege). Parisian workers drive the troops out.
• 18 March 1871: the Commune begins; Paris is now besieged by French troops. For the first time ordinary Parisians are "masters of their own lives"; the wealthy flee again. Parisians imagine Paris as the laboratory of a new, more equal world.

The Commune's social legislation (a great term-answer list):

• Abolish the standing army → a National Guard of working men ("the people at arms").
• Separation of Church and state; planned secular education.
• All public offices elective and short-term.
• A labor exchange for the unemployed; abolition of night baking (unhealthy for bakers).
• Nurseries for working women; recognized women's unions (made the Guard's uniforms); women's clubs proliferate. → A landmark in women's history: women publicly voiced demands for political rights - which is why the backlash was so brutal.

Symbols: red becomes ubiquitous (a forbidden color); the Vendôme Column (Napoleon's statue) is toppled - ordinary people pose for photos in front of it. The Communards were working-class people (artisans, craftsmen, servants), expressing urban pride. Conservatives painted them as "furies from hell," immoral bloodthirsty drunks attacking the social order.

The repression ("Bloody Week"):

• 21 May 1871: troops pour in through the western gate, using the wide boulevards Haussmann built under Napoleon III - boulevards designed in part to suppress popular revolts. Troops head straight for working-class neighborhoods.
• Women are killed first (for bourgeois ideology, a politically active woman ceased to be "respectable"). ~15,000–25,000 killed.
• The Basilica of Sacré-Cœur was later built on Montmartre to "purge the sins of the Commune."
• Lessons: the Left concluded the state is powerful, vicious, repressive - the Commune becomes a model for future revolutions; the conservatives concluded with horror/fear of plebeian revolution.

Anarchism (the second half). Another socialist-rooted reaction, rising in the late 19th century. As a political philosophy it demands the abolition of the state - seen as merely the repressive arm (law, police, army) of bourgeois society.

• Key contrast with communists: communists want to capture the state and build a dictatorship of the proletariat; anarchists reject the state entirely and refuse political participation (which they see as propping up capitalism). They share with communists a hostility to religion (a tool to keep workers subdued) and with syndicalists a suspicion of parliamentary politics.
• As a mode of action it favors direct, often violent action (bombings).
• Thinkers: in Russia, two nobles - Peter Kropotkin (The Conquest of Bread, 1892) and Mikhail Bakunin (God and the State, 1882); both influenced by France's Pierre-Joseph Proudhon (What Is Property?, 1840 - "Property is theft!"). Kropotkin popularized "propaganda by the deed" (a single bomb/assassination to ignite revolution); Bakunin called destruction "a creative passion."

Why anarchism then. The full bloom of consumerism + capitalism widened the wealth gap (the rich living beside the poor). Haussmann's rebuilding had pushed the poor (via higher rents) to the outer/eastern neighborhoods where cholera still killed as late as 1884. After the Commune, police and soldiers were everywhere.

The dynamite question (a likely term). A wave of anarchist bombings hit Paris 1892–94. The favorite weapon was dynamite (invented by Alfred Nobel, 1868) - seen as a "weapon of the weak" that leveled the playing field. But anarchists differed: some attacked symbols of the state (politicians, police, army); others - loners like Émile Henry - made no distinction between civilians and officials.

"Were the anarchists terrorists?" (the lecture's pointed conclusion). The word "terrorism" originally described state action - "The Terror" of the French Revolution terrorized opponents. Most victims of terror are victims of state terrorism. Anarchists hated the state precisely because they'd seen state terrorism up close in the Commune's massacres. In the 1890s anarchist attacks killed at most ~60 people (200+ wounded); state terrorism killed 260 times that number. Use this to complicate any "violence and politics" question.

Exam takeaways. Week 10 is your topic for labor mobilization, class consciousness, communism vs. anarchism, and the Paris Commune. Pair with Engels (Condition of the Working-Class in England - the documented immiseration that the Commune and these ideologies respond to). Film link: Germinal (Berri, 1993) - the miners' strike and its violent repression show what Engels documents and what Week 10 theorizes (class consciousness, capital vs. labor, the state crushing collective action).

3 Term bank Part 2 terms with answers

Read the term in the summary, recall your answer, then open the dropdown to check. ★ = highest-probability terms. Grouped by week, in roughly chronological order within each.

Week 6 Haiti - Saint-Domingue

Week 7 Napoleons Egyptian Campaign

Week 8 The Eastern Question and Greece

Week 9 The Industrial Revolutions

Week 10 Term Bank Industrialization and Labor Mobilization

4 Master timeline the whole post-midterm story in order

5 Cross-cutting themes how the weeks connect

1. The civilizing mission as ideology. Europe justified expansion as liberation, science, and progress. Napoleon "regenerating" Egypt (Week 7, Said) and the schooling that taught "imperial pride and racial superiority" (Week 9) are two faces of the same self-image. Use Said + Passion in the Desert.

2. The hidden cost of European power. Global dominance rested on exploitation - enslaved labor in Haiti (Week 6) and the workhouse/child labor/epidemics of industrial Britain (Week 9). Pair Kennedy (the macro power story) with Engels and Oliver Twist/Germinal (the human cost).

3. The limits of universalism. "All men are created equal" excluded the enslaved (Haiti), the propertyless, and women (active vs. passive citizens; the Commune's brutal backlash against political women) - the ideal and its limitation always travel together.

4. Nationalism unmakes plural worlds. The ethnicization of religion in Greece (Week 8) dissolved the multi-ethnic Ottoman order and bred counter-nationalisms (Turkish). Schools, conscription, and rewritten history manufacture the nation. Use Mazower + the Greek Declaration (1822).

5. The state and violence. From the Commune's repression to the anarchist bombings, the course insists that state ("the Terror") terror dwarfs non-state violence - the original meaning of "terrorism" was action by the state.

6 Film-as-evidence cheat sheet one scene one reading each

For full film notes (summaries, themes, more scenes), see HUMS131_Final_Movie_Study_Guide.md in this folder.

7 Final 24-hour checklist

• Can you give exact dates for: the Battle of the Nile, the start of the Greek revolt, Navarino, Haitian independence, the Paris Commune, Bloody Week? (If not, re-read the timeline.)
• Can you write a 3-sentence answer for any 5 ★ terms from memory (cover the dropdown and recall)?
• For each predicted essay in HUMS131_Final_Essay_Questions.md, can you build the answer before opening the dropdown?
• Can you attach one primary source and one film to each week (6→Friends of Blacks; 7→Said + Passion; 8→Greek Declaration/Mazower; 9→Kennedy + Oliver Twist; 10→Engels + Germinal)?

Good luck, Umut.